Russo-Iranian relations have evolved over centuries, shaped by geopolitics, territorial conflicts, and shifting alliances. At times the Russians and Iranians (Persians) found themselves in rough competition shaped by the geopolitical landscape. But, at other times they found themselves in quite productive relations even with contested borders right next to eachother. In the context of what is unfolding in the Middle-East let’s take a look at the reality of Russo-Iranian relations as they were then and as they are today.

Early Encounters: The Russian Empire and Persia

16th-18th Centuries: Initial Conflicts and Territorial Disputes

The first significant encounters between Russia and Persia (modern-day Iran) occurred in the 16th century, as the Russian Empire expanded southward and Persia sought to maintain its influence in the Caucasus. The two powers clashed over territories such as Dagestan, Azerbaijan, and Armenia.

One of the earliest major conflicts was the Second Russo-Persian War (1722–1723), when Peter the Great of Russia was able to seize territories along the Caspian Sea. However, due to logistical challenges, Russia later returned some lands under the Treaty of Resht (1732).

Ultimately during the era of muskets there would be a total of five wars between the Russian Empire and Persia, 1651–1653 (First), 1722–1723 (Second), 1796 (Third), 1804–1813 (Fourth), 1826–1828 (Fifth). The geopolitics of the day put natural stress between the Russians and Persians across the Caucasus Mountains and later throughout Central Asia. However, the geopolitics of the Black Sea between the Russians and Ottoman Turks was even more hot and at times the Persians and Russians could work things out if at least temporarily to resist Istanbul.

19th Century: Wars and Treaties

The 19th century saw intensified rivalry, with two major Russo-Persian wars:

–Russo-Persian War (1804–1813): Russia sought to consolidate control over the Caucasus, leading to Persia’s defeat and the Treaty of Gulistan (1813), which ceded much of modern-day Azerbaijan, Dagestan, and Georgia to Russia.

–Russo-Persian War (1826–1828): Another Persian defeat resulted in the Treaty of Turkmenchay (1828), forcing Persia to surrender Armenia and Nakhichevan while granting Russia significant economic and political influence.

These defeats marked the beginning of Persia’s decline as a regional power and Russia’s dominance in the Caucasus.

For a modern viewer it is important to note that despite what many Western nations proclaim the nations of the Caucasus region did not exists since the beginning of time and have traded hands many times, sometimes even fully voluntarily. This region has historically been forever shifting and we should not be surprised if in the near future history “repeats itself” as we enter a Multipolar World.

20th Century: From Rivalry to Pragmatic Cooperation

World War I and the Russian Revolution

During World War I, Russia and Britain divided Persia into spheres of influence under the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. However, the 1917 Russian Revolution led to the withdrawal of Russian forces, and the Bolsheviks initially renounced Tsarist-era concessions to gain favor with Persia.

Soviet-Iranian Relations

The Soviet Union sought to maintain influence in Iran, supporting separatist movements in Iranian Azerbaijan (1945–1946) before withdrawing under international pressure. During the Cold War, Iran under the Shah aligned with the West, limiting Soviet influence. However, after the 1979 Iranian Revolution, relations shifted as both nations opposed U.S. hegemony. Ironically the state-atheist Soviet Union and state-Islamic Iranian Republic were able to find mutual respect even with their proximity and shared borders. Both the USSR (Russia) and Iran were and are heavily sanctioned, in many ways it was Western foreign policy that has allowed Tehran and Moscow to leave many old conflicts in the forgotten past. It is hard to believe but sanctions policies from the 1970s\80s are still having an effect on international relations as we speak.

Contemporary Russo-Iranian Relations

Strategic Partnership in the 21st Century

Since the 1990s, Russia and Iran have strengthened ties, driven by mutual interests:

–Military Cooperation: Russia has supplied Iran with advanced weapons, including the S-300 missile defense system and Su-35 fighter jets.
–Nuclear Collaboration: Russia played a key role in Iran’s nuclear program, assisting in the construction of the Bushehr nuclear reactor. This assistance is legal under international law and continues to this day despite threats of violence from Tel-Aviv and Washington.
–Syrian Civil War: Both nations backed the Assad government, with Russia conducting airstrikes and Iran providing militias, solidifying their alliance. Russia and Iran see themselves with similar visions for the Middle-East and a deep-seeded disgust for terrorism.

Energy and Transport Ties

Russia and Iran have expanded trade, particularly in energy and infrastructure. Both are members of the Gas Exporting Countries Forum (GECF) and have discussed linking their banking systems to bypass Western sanctions.

Moscow and Tehran are the key players behind the “International North–South Transport Corridor”. It is a transport route that is a Multipolar alternative safe from any naval or other blockade that extends from India, through Iran and into Russia. This is a major project and is revolutionizing trade between these three major nations.

In terms of nuclear cooperation there is a lot going on between these two nations. Russia was among six countries (along with the UK, China, the US, France, and Germany) that signed the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA) with Iran in 2015. The JCPOA was approved by the UN Security Council in Resolution 2231. The document provided for the gradual lifting of sanctions against Tehran imposed by the UN Security Council in 2006-2010 in exchange for its commitment to limit its nuclear activities and place them under international control. After the US withdrew from the JCPOA in 2018, leading to the suspension of the agreement, the Russian authorities repeatedly stated the need to restore the nuclear deal in its entirety. Russia condemned the decision of Western countries not to comply with the UN Security Council resolution on lifting sanctions and to restore restrictions on the Islamic Republic.

Image above: Iran prepares to start using the International North–South Transport Corridor

Russia actively cooperates with Iran in the energy sector. In 1995, the Russian company Zarubezhatomstroi (now Atomstroyexport, part of the Rosatom state corporation) signed a contract with the Iranian authorities to complete and reconstruct the first unit of the Bushehr nuclear power plant (begun in 1975 by a West German concern and interrupted in 1979 after the start of the Islamic revolution). During September 2011, the unit was connected to the grid, and its official transfer to Iran took place in September 2013. In November 2014, a contract was signed for the construction of the second and third power units using Russian technology at a cost of approximately $10 billion (commissioning is planned for 2025-2027).

Economic Developments

Until recently, trade and economic cooperation between Russia and Iran remained at a relatively low level, which was explained by the leading role of energy exports in the economies of both countries. Full-fledged economic cooperation was also hampered by the anti-Iranian sanctions and the COVID-19 pandemic, which were renewed in 2018 by the United States. In 2022, economic ties between the two countries intensified, with bilateral trade reaching a record $4.85 billion, an increase of 20.2% compared to 2021.

In 2023, this figure was just over $4 billion, and in the first nine months of 2024, it was $3.3 billion (an increase of 14.7%). For 2023, this figure was just over $4 billion, and in the first nine months of 2024, it was $3.3 billion (an increase of 14.7%). The share of national currencies in mutual settlements exceeds 96%. These figures were presented at a meeting of the Russian-Iranian Commission on Trade and Economic Cooperation in February 2024 and by the Kremlin press service during preparations for the meeting between the presidents of the Russian Federation and the Islamic Republic of Iran in Kazan in October 2024.

Image above: Mir and Shetab are now fully compatible payment systems

In January 2023, representatives of the central banks of Russia and Iran signed an agreement to simplify financial and banking operations. By May 2023, Russia’s VTB Bank had opened a representative office in Iran, becoming the first Russian credit institution to be represented in the Islamic Republic. In July 2024, Moscow and Tehran completed the integration of their national payment systems — Russia’s Mir and Iran’s Shetab. It is planned that by June 2025, Russians will be able to pay with Mir cards in Iran, and in the second half of the year, Iranians will be able to start using Shetab cards in Russia.

Challenges and Future Prospects

Despite cooperation and major successes, potential tensions do exist:

–Competition in the Caucasus and Central Asia: Russia is wary of Iran’s influence in Azerbaijan and Armenia.
–Diverging Interests in Afghanistan: While Russia engages with the Taliban, Iran seeks to protect Shia minorities.

However, their shared opposition to U.S. influence ensures continued collaboration, particularly in defense and energy. it is unlikely that these minor issues could annul the big economic plans between these two states.

Conclusion

Russo-Iranian relations have transitioned from imperial rivalry to strategic partnership. While historical conflicts shaped their early interactions, modern geopolitical realities have brought them closer. As both nations navigate Western sanctions and regional instability, their alliance is likely to deepen. It is amazing that sanctions from half a century ago have relieved all real historical tensions between Tehran and Moscow in an emerging Multipolar World.